Nepal faces a multifaceted air pollution challenge driven by rapid urbanization, widespread use of solid fuels for cooking, industrial emissions, fossil fuel-dependent transportation, and open burning of agricultural and municipal waste. Compounding the issue is topographical confinement in valleys such as Kathmandu, which leads to pollutant accumulation, especially during winter months. The average annual PM2.5 exposure in Nepal is 45.7 µg/m³—9.1 times higher than the WHO guideline. In 2019, 63 deaths per 100,000 people were attributable to fine particulate matter pollution, totalling around 13,000 premature deaths nationwide. Outdoor air pollution significantly contributes to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (26%), lower respiratory infections (20%), stroke (19%), tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer (16%), ischemic heart disease (16%), type 2 diabetes (12%), and neonatal disorders (8%). These figures highlight the considerable public health burden associated with air pollution in Nepal. Nepal has met 7 out of 9 global air quality targets. Achievements include the adoption of clean production incentives, sulphur levels in diesel reduced to below 50 ppm, financial and regulatory support for clean cooking and heating, and promotion of sustainable agricultural practices. The country also maintains continuous air quality monitoring and has established national air quality standards. However, progress is still needed in tightening vehicle emission standards (currently below Euro 4) and ensuring full control of open solid waste burning.
Nepal operates a growing air quality monitoring network, with continuous monitoring at multiple sites across the country. These stations measure pollutants such as PM2.5 and PM10, but monitoring of other harmful pollutants—like black carbon, sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone—remains limited. There is also a recognized need for improvement in emission inventory systems, data integration platforms, and air quality forecasting. Strengthening satellite-based monitoring and real-time tracking of emissions from key polluters (super emitters) has been identified as a technical priority, alongside capacity development for environmental governance and health impact assessments.
Efforts to reduce air pollution span several key sectors. In the energy sector, Nepal exclusively generates electricity from renewable sources, primarily hydropower and solar, and operates no fossil fuel-based power plants. In the household sector, there has been a 50% reduction in emissions over the past 15 years, driven by the introduction of improved cookstoves, LPG, and electric cooking solutions in rural areas. In the industrial sector, many brick kilns have transitioned to cleaner zigzag technology, and industries are increasingly adopting electric boilers and induction furnaces. Compliance monitoring of emission standards is in place, though overall industrial emissions remain a concern. The transport sector has seen notable advances, with rising numbers of electric vehicles (EVs)—including buses, microbuses, cars, and scooters. Emission checks for vehicles are regularly enforced. The government has implemented a fiscal policy framework that includes a pollution tax on diesel, petrol, and kerosene; a green tax on coal and furnace oil; and tax exemptions for EV imports, batteries (including those manufactured domestically), and EV registration in some local jurisdictions. In the area of waste and agricultural residue management, the government discourages open burning and promotes the production of bio-briquettes and bio-pellets from forest biomass and crop waste as sustainable alternatives.
Nepal’s air pollution control framework is grounded in the National Ambient Air Quality Standard 2012. Legal instruments prohibit the incineration of hospital waste without autoclave treatment and ban open burning within industrial premises. The country has also adopted a comprehensive set of industry-specific emission and chimney height standards, covering industrial boilers, brick kilns 2017, cement industries, diesel generators, incinerators 2014, in-use vehicles, and vehicles operated with LPG or gasoline. These measures are supported by the Kathmandu Valley Air Quality Management Action Plan 2019 and the country’s Long-Term Strategy for Net-Zero Emissions by 2045.