Iran faces serious and persistent air pollution challenges, particularly in major urban centres such as Tehran, Esfahan, Mashhad, and Tabriz. Tehran, the capital, frequently experiences hazardous or very unhealthy air quality levels, driven by factors including inadequate public transportation, an aging vehicle fleet, and a heavy reliance on fossil fuels, which account for 98% of the country’s energy production. This pollution poses a significant public health burden, with average annual exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) reaching 32.3 µg/m³—more than six times the World Health Organization’s guideline. In 2019, air pollution was linked to an estimated 74 deaths per 100,000 people, totalling nearly 49,000 premature deaths nationwide. Fine particulate pollution is a major contributor to several diseases, accounting for 24% of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease deaths, 23% of strokes, 22% of both type 2 diabetes and lung cancer deaths, and 21% of ischemic heart disease fatalities. It also contributes to 19% of deaths from lower respiratory infections and 12% of neonatal disorder deaths.
Iran operates an extensive air quality monitoring network comprising 219 stations, with 171 currently active, that track key pollutants including NO₂, SO₂, O₃, CO, PM2.5, and PM10. This network supports data-driven policy and operational decisions. A central data system, the Tehran Emission Inventory, identifies pollution sources and informs targeted interventions in the capital city. To support effective implementation and oversight, Iran utilizes the Action Plan Progress Monitoring Platform, a digital tool that tracks 172 tasks across 11 national and 88 local stakeholders using defined Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). These monitoring and management tools are essential for coordinating efforts, assessing progress, and adapting policies to improve air quality outcomes.
A significant environmental concern in Iran is the impact of transboundary dust storms, particularly in western and southern regions. These natural events, combined with urban emissions and weak enforcement of vehicle and industrial standards, have made consistent air quality improvement difficult. Looking ahead, Iran is positioning itself for greater International Solar Investment Cooperation, aiming to accelerate its clean energy transition and reduce long-term emissions. It also seeks Regional Collaboration on Dust Storms, especially to address transboundary air pollution affecting western and southern provinces.
Yearly PM2.5 levels in major cities of Iran reveal consistently high air pollution across the country, with all monitored cities far exceeding the WHO’s 2021 standard. Tehran shows the highest concentrations, frequently surpassing 30 µg/m³ and occasionally nearing 37 µg/m³, especially in the early 2000s. Mashhad, Shiraz, and Tabriz also report elevated levels, fluctuating between 25–35 µg/m³ over the years. Isfahan, while consistently lower than the others, still records PM2.5 values between 15–25 µg/m³. Although there is some year-to-year variability, no clear downward trend is observed, highlighting persistent air quality concerns likely driven by industrial activity, vehicular emissions, and regional atmospheric conditions.
Iran has developed a layered and evolving policy framework to address its severe air pollution challenges. This journey began with the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act (1974), which established the legal foundation for national environmental governance. The Air Pollution Prevention Act (1995) followed as the country’s first legislation specifically targeting urban air quality and industrial emissions. A significant milestone was the Clean Air Act (2017)—a comprehensive law mandating air quality monitoring, emission reductions, promotion of clean energy, urban transport reform, and public awareness initiatives. To implement this law, Iran launched the National Clean Air Action Plan, which outlines 24 coordinated policy areas including scrapping old vehicles, standardizing fuels, regulating industrial emissions, managing traffic, expanding public transport, and incentivizing clean energy adoption such as electric motorcycles. The plan also emphasizes public engagement and employs structured decision-making tools like the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to prioritize interventions based on their impact and feasibility. Notable progress under this framework includes scrapping over 100,000 old vehicles and adding 2,000 MW of clean energy capacity within the first year. Additionally, the country has adopted Euro 4 or higher Vehicle Emission Standards to reduce pollutants from transportation sources.
Sand and Dust Storms in Iran – an Overview
Iran is among the countries most gravely affected by sand and dust storms (SDS), a growing environmental hazard that significantly deteriorates air quality, threatens public health, and disrupts socio-economic systems. Due to its geographical positioning and arid climate, Iran experiences frequent dust storms originating both domestically—from deserts such as Dasht-e Lut and Dasht-e Kavir—and transboundary sources in Iraq and Syria. These events have become more intense and prolonged due to extended droughts, land degradation, and climate variability.
According to the ESCAP Sand and Dust Storms Risk Assessment (2021), approximately 62 million people in Iran—more than 80% of the population—are exposed to medium or high levels of poor air quality caused by SDS. The southern and eastern provinces face particularly acute exposure levels. The following map illustrates the intersection between dust concentration, population density, Sub-national Human Development Index (SHDI), and the overall risk to human health.
Major Iranian cities like Ahvaz and Bandar Abbas are among the most polluted globally due to SDS. These cities recorded over 318 days in 2019 where air quality levels breached WHO’s safe thresholds for PM10 (50 µg/m³), exposing millions to prolonged respiratory risks. Low levels of human development in these regions affect the ability to mitigate or recover from health impacts.
The ecological footprint of SDS in Iran extends beyond air pollution. Dust deposition degrades agricultural land, contaminates water sources, and accelerates desertification. Between 2000 and 2004, SDS events caused an estimated $48.3 million USD in damages to agriculture and over $650,000 USD in electrical infrastructure losses, with further disruptions caused by power outages—especially in the Sistan-Baluchestan region.
Dust also significantly impairs solar energy production, a vital renewable resource in Iran’s energy transition. Its accumulation on photovoltaic surfaces reduces efficiency and raises maintenance costs. As a result, ESCAP ranks Iran among the top countries in the region for SDS-related energy losses.
Climate models project worsening SDS conditions in Iran due to increasing drought frequency. The map below, using the Palmer Drought Severity Index for 2030–2039, highlights southern and southeastern Iran as future hotspots for extreme drought conditions, which are key precursors to more severe SDS events.
Despite growing risks, Iran has taken proactive steps in SDS risk management. The Tehran Ministerial Declaration (2017), supported by ESCAP and UNEP, advocated for regional collaboration on data sharing, early warning systems, and adaptive land management. Moreover, Iran participates in the Sand and Dust Storm Warning Advisory and Assessment System (SDS-WAS) coordinated by the WMO, contributing to real-time forecasting and regional risk assessments.